"A profession is a vocation founded upon specialised educational Education in its broadest sense is any act or experience that has a formative effect on the mind, character, or physical ability of an individual ; and in its technical sense education is the process by which society deliberately transmits its accumulated knowledge, values, and skills from one generation to another through institutions. Teachers training The term training refers to the acquisition of knowledge, skills, and competencies as a result of the teaching of vocational or practical skills and knowledge that relate to specific useful competencies. It forms the core of apprenticeships and provides the backbone of content at institutes of technology . In addition to the basic training, the purpose of which is to supply disinterested counsel and service to others, for a direct and definite compensation, wholly apart from expectation of other business gain"^[1].

History

Classically, there were only three professions: Divinity, Medicine Medicine is the art and science of healing. It encompasses a range of health care practices evolved to maintain and restore health by the prevention and treatment of illness, and Law Law is a system of rules, usually enforced through a set of institutions. It shapes politics, economics and society in numerous ways and serves as a primary social mediator in relations between people. Contract law regulates everything from buying a bus ticket to trading on derivatives markets. Property law defines rights and obligations related^[2]. The main milestones which mark an occupation being identified as a profession are:

1. It became a full-time occupation;
2. The first training school was established;
3. The first university A university is an institution of higher education and research, which grants academic degrees in a variety of subjects. A university provides both undergraduate education and postgraduate education. The word university is derived from the Latin universitas magistrorum et scholarium, roughly meaning "community of teachers and scholars" school was established;
4. The first local association A voluntary association or union is a group of individuals who voluntarily enter into an agreement to form a body (or organization) to accomplish a purpose was established;
5. The first national association was established;
6. The codes of professional ethics were introduced;
7. State licensing laws were established.^[2]

The ranking of established professions in the United States based on the above milestones shows Surveying Surveying or land surveying is the technique and science of accurately determining the terrestrial or three-dimensional space position of points and the distances and angles between them. These points are usually on the surface of the Earth, and are often used to establish land maps and boundaries for ownership or governmental purposes. In order first (George Washington, Thomas Jefferson, and Abraham Lincoln were all land surveyors before entering politics), followed by Medicine Medicine is the art and science of healing. It encompasses a range of health care practices evolved to maintain and restore health by the prevention and treatment of illness, Law Law is a system of rules, usually enforced through a set of institutions. It shapes politics, economics and society in numerous ways and serves as a primary social mediator in relations between people. Contract law regulates everything from buying a bus ticket to trading on derivatives markets. Property law defines rights and obligations related, Dentistry Dentistry is the known evaluation, diagnosis, prevention, and treatment of diseases, disorders and conditions of the soft and hard tissues of the jaw , the oral cavity, maxillofacial area and the adjacent and associated structures and their impact on the human body. Dentistry is widely considered necessary for complete overall health. Those in the, Civil Engineering Engineering has been an aspect of life since the beginnings of human existence. Civil engineering might be considered properly commencing between 4000 and 2000 BC in Ancient Egypt and Mesopotamia when humans started to abandon a nomadic existence, thus causing a need for the construction of shelter. During this time, transportation became, Logistics Logistics is the management of the flow of goods, information and other resources, including energy and people, between the point of origin and the point of consumption in order to meet the requirements of consumers . Logistics involves the integration of information, transportation, inventory, warehousing, material-handling, and packaging, and, Architecture Architecture is the art and science of designing and constructing buildings and other physical structures for human shelter or use. A wider definition often includes the design of the total built environment, from the macro level of how a building integrates with its surrounding context (see town planning, urban design, and landscape architecture) and Accounting Accountancy or accounting is the art of communicating financial information about a business entity to users such as shareholders and managers. The communication is generally in the form of financial statements that show in money terms the economic resources under the control of management^[3]. With the rise of technology and occupational specialization in the 19th century, other bodies began to claim professional status: Pharmacy Pharmacy is the health profession that links the health sciences with the chemical sciences, and it is charged with ensuring the safe and effective use of medication, Logistics Logistics is the management of the flow of goods, information and other resources, including energy and people, between the point of origin and the point of consumption in order to meet the requirements of consumers . Logistics involves the integration of information, transportation, inventory, warehousing, material-handling, and packaging, and, Veterinary Medicine A veterinarian or a veterinary surgeon (British English), often shortened to vet, is a physician for animals and a practitioner of veterinary medicine. The word comes from the Latin veterinae meaning "working animals". "Veterinarian" was first used in print by Thomas Browne in 1646, Nursing Nursing is a healthcare profession focused on the care of individuals, families, and communities so they may attain, maintain, or recover optimal health and quality of life from birth to the end of life, Teaching In education, a teacher is a person who educates others. A teacher who educates an individual student may also be described as a personal tutor. The role of teacher is often formal and ongoing, carried out by way of occupation or profession at a school or other place of formal education. In many countries, a person wishing to become a teacher at, Librarianship A librarian is an information professional trained in library and information science, which is the organization and management of information services or materials for those with information needs. Typically, librarians work in a public or college library, an elementary or secondary school media center, a library within a business or company, or, Optometry Optometry is a health care profession concerned with eyes and related structures, as well as vision, visual systems, and vision information processing in humans and Social Work Social work is both a profession and social science. It involves the application of social theory and research methods to study and improve the lives of people, groups, and societies. It incorporates and uses other social sciences as a means to improve the human condition and positively change society's response to chronic problems. Social work is, all of which could claim to be professions by 1900 using these milestones^[4].

Just as some professions rise in status and power through various stages, so others may decline. This is characterized by the red cloaks of bishops giving way to the black cloaks of lawyers and then to the white cloaks of doctors^[5]. With the church having receded in its role in western society, the remaining classical professions (law and medicine) are both noted by many as requiring not just study to enter, but extensive study and accreditation above and beyond simply getting a university degree.^{[citation needed]} Accordingly more recently-formalized disciplines, such as architecture Architecture is the art and science of designing and constructing buildings and other physical structures for human shelter or use. A wider definition often includes the design of the total built environment, from the macro level of how a building integrates with its surrounding context (see town planning, urban design, and landscape architecture), which now have equally-long periods of study associated with them. ^[6]

Although professions enjoy high status and public prestige, all professionals do not earn the same high salaries. There are hidden inequalities even within professions.

Examples of professions

Professions include, for example: Lawyers A lawyer, according to Black's Law Dictionary, is "a person learned in the law; as an attorney, counsel or solicitor; a person licensed to practice law." Law is the system of rules of conduct established by the sovereign government of a society to correct wrongs, maintain stability, and deliver justice. Working as a lawyer involves the, Engineers An engineer is a skilled technical professional. Engineers are concerned with developing economical and safe solutions to practical problems, by applying mathematics and scientific knowledge while considering technical constraints. The term is derived from the Latin root "ingenium," meaning "cleverness". The industrial, Professors The meaning of the word professor varies. In some English-speaking countries, it refers to a senior academic who holds a departmental chair, especially as head of the department, or a personal chair awarded specifically to that individual. For example, in the United Kingdom, Ireland, South Africa, Australia, New Zealand, The Netherlands, United, Architects An architect is trained and licensed in planning and designing buildings, and participates in supervising the construction of a building. Etymologically, architect derives from the Latin architectus, itself derived from the Greek arkhitekton , i.e. chief builder. A looser usage of Architect is: the translator of the building user's requirements of, Dentists Dentistry is the known evaluation, diagnosis, prevention, and treatment of diseases, disorders and conditions of the soft and hard tissues of the jaw , the oral cavity, maxillofacial area and the adjacent and associated structures and their impact on the human body. Dentistry is widely considered necessary for complete overall health. Those in the and Physicians A physician, medical practitioner, doctor of medicine, or medical doctor practices medicine, and is concerned with maintaining or restoring human health through the study, diagnosis, and treatment of disease and injury. This is accomplished through a detailed knowledge of anatomy, physiology, diseases and treatment — the science of medicine —.^[7]

Formation of a profession

A profession arises when any trade or occupation transforms itself through "the development of formal qualifications based upon education and examinations, the emergence of regulatory bodies with powers to admit and discipline members, and some degree of monopoly rights."^[8]

Regulation

Professions are typically regulated by statute A statute is a formal written enactment of a legislative authority that governs a country, state, city, or county. Typically, statutes command or prohibit something, or declare policy. The word is often used to distinguish law made by legislative bodies from case law and the regulations issued by Government agencies. Statutes are sometimes, with the responsibilities of enforcement delegated to respective professional bodies A professional association is a non-profit organization seeking to further a particular profession, the interests of individuals engaged in that profession, and the public interest, whose function is to define, promote, oversee, support and regulate the affairs of its members. These bodies are responsible for the licensure of professionals, and may additionally set examinations In an academic or professional context, examinations are tests which aim to determine the ability of a student or a prospective practitioner. Exams are usually written tests, although some may be practical or have practical components, and vary greatly in structure, content and difficulty depending on the subject, the age group of the tested of competence and enforce adherence to an ethical code In the context of a code that is adopted by a profession or by a governmental or quasi-governmental organ to regulate that profession, an ethical code may be styled as a code of professional responsibility, which may dispense with difficult issues of what behavior is "ethical" of practice. However, they all require that the individual hold at least a first professional degree A first professional degree is an academic degree that prepares the holder for a particular profession by emphasizing competency skills along with theory and analysis. These professions are typically licensed or otherwise regulated by a governmental or government-approved body. Areas such as nursing, architecture, forestry, law, medicine, before licensure. There may be several such bodies for one profession in a single country, an example being the ten accountancy bodies British qualified accountants are full voting members of examining bodies that evaluate individual experience and test competencies. Qualified Accountants fall into two categories: members of Chartered and non-Chartered bodies. CCAB accountants are full members of those United Kingdom accountancy bodies which are themselves members of the (ACCA The Association of Chartered Certified Accountants is a British accountancy body which offers the Chartered Certified Accountant (Designatory letters ACCA or FCCA) qualification worldwide. It is one of the world's largest and fastest-growing accountancy bodies with 131,500 members and 362,000 affiliates and students in 170 countries (as at, ICAEW, ICAI The Institute of Chartered Accountants in Ireland is a professional accountancy body in the Republic of Ireland and Northern Ireland, ICAS The Institute of Chartered Accountants of Scotland is the Scottish professional accountancy body for chartered accountants and auditors. It is based in Edinburgh, CIMA The Chartered Institute of Management Accountants is a UK based professional body offering training and qualification in management accountancy and related subjects, focused on accounting for business; together with ongoing support for members, CIPFA The Chartered Institute of Public Finance and Accountancy is one of a number of professional associations for accountants in the UK. CIPFA has more than 15,000 members and 3,000 students and is the only accountancy body that specialises in public sector accountancy, AAPA The AAPA was formed in 1978 as a professional body for auditors recognised individually under the Companies Act 1948. AAPA achieved formal recognition by the Department of Trade and Industry in 1989 when the Companies Act received Royal Assent. In September 1991, AAPA achieved the status of a Recognised Supervisory Body and eligible AAPA members, CIMA The Chartered Institute of Management Accountants is a UK based professional body offering training and qualification in management accountancy and related subjects, focused on accounting for business; together with ongoing support for members, IFA The Institute of Financial Accountants is a professional body representing financial accountants in the United Kingdom as well as abroad, CPA The Association of Certified Public Accountants is an amalgamation of The Society of Public Accountants which was founded in 1989, and the Association of Certified Public Accountants which was formed in 1991. The Association represents wholly and exclusively the interests of the practising Certified Public Accountant in the United Kingdom) of the United Kingdom The United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland is a sovereign state located off the northwestern coast of continental Europe. It is an island country, spanning an archipelago including Great Britain, the northeastern part of Ireland, and many small islands. Northern Ireland is the only part of the UK with a land border, sharing it with, all of which have been given a Royal Charter A royal charter is a charter granted by a Sovereign to create institutions or other forms of incorporated bodies (such as a city, company, or university). In the British legal tradition a royal charter is in the form of letters patent. Historically, royal charters were granted as an exercise of the royal prerogative, and were generally used to although not necessarily considered to hold equivalent-level qualifications.

Typically, individuals are required by law to be qualified by a local professional body before they are permitted to practice in that profession. However, in some countries, individuals may not be required by law to be qualified by such a professional body in order to practice, as is the case for accountancy in the United Kingdom The United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland is a sovereign state located off the northwestern coast of continental Europe. It is an island country, spanning an archipelago including Great Britain, the northeastern part of Ireland, and many small islands. Northern Ireland is the only part of the UK with a land border, sharing it with (except for auditing and insolvency work which legally require qualification by a professional body). In such cases, qualification by the professional bodies is effectively still considered a prerequisite to practice as most employers and clients stipulate that the individual hold such qualifications before hiring their services.

Autonomy

Professions tend to be autonomous, which means they have a high degree of control of their own affairs: "professionals are autonomous insofar as they can make independent judgments about their work"^[9] This usually means "the freedom to exercise their professional judgement."^[10] However, it has other meanings. "Professional autonomy is often described as a claim of professionals that has to serve primarily their own interests...this professional autonomy can only be maintained if members of the profession subject their activities and decisions to a critical evaluation by other members of the profession "^[11] The concept of autonomy can therefore be seen to embrace not only judgement, but also self-interest and a continuous process of critical evaluation of ethics and procedures from within the profession itself.

Status and prestige

Professions enjoy a high social status, regard and esteem ^{[12] [13]} conferred upon them by society. This high esteem arises primarily from the higher social function of their work, which is regarded as vital to society as a whole and thus of having a special and valuable nature. All professions involve technical, specialised and highly skilled work often referred to as "professional expertise." ^[14] Training for this work involves obtaining degrees and professional qualifications (see Licensure Licensure refers to the granting of a license, which gives a 'permission to practice.' Such licenses are usually issued in order to regulate some activity that is deemed to be dangerous or a threat to the person or the public or which involves a high level of specialized skill. The danger and skill elements inspire governments not to allow a free-) without which entry to the profession is barred (occupational closure). Training also requires regular updating of skills through continuing education.

Power

All professions have power. ^[15] This power is used to control its own members, and also its area of expertise and interests. A profession tends to dominate, police and protect its area of expertise and the conduct of its members, and exercises a dominating influence over its entire field which means that professions can act monopolist, ^[16] rebuffing competition from ancillary trades and occupations, as well as subordinating and controlling lesser but related trades. ^[17] A profession is characterised by the power and high prestige it has in society as a whole. It is the power, prestige and value that society confers upon a profession that more clearly defines it.

Gender inequality

There is a long-standing and well-documented male domination of all professions, even though this has weakened over the last forty years or so. For example, well-qualified women rarely get the same pay as men. "There is a 15 per cent pay gap between men and women across Europe. The situation is particularly bad in Britain. A report by the 'Women and Work Commission' last year found that women in full-time work are earning 17 per cent less than men on average...significant numbers of women enter professions such as the law and medicine every year. They are increasingly well represented as heads of professional bodies and national arts organizations. Overall, since 1975, the pay gap has narrowed by 12 percentage points."^[18]

Although in Britain, "the full time gender pay gap has shrunk in the past 30 years, it is still 17%, while for part-time work it is stuck at a shameful 40%....all this is happening when, at school and college, women are outshining men. In the medical and legal professions there has been a 'genderquake,'"^[19] which means these professions are gradually becoming female-dominated. Yet their pay continues to lag behind that of their male colleagues.

This situation is by no means limited to the law and medicine. "Research from the profession's leading body, the Chartered Institute of Personnel and Development (CIPD), has discovered that there is a 23% pay gap between men and women in senior HR positions. This all the more embarrassing because HR is considered a women's profession....and (although) a professional qualification is a hallmark of equality...in practice, some professionals are better rewarded than others, and that the better rewarded tend to be men. This is not solely because men are more likely to reach the top of their professions. Gender gaps have been found in the starting salaries of newly qualified solicitors. And there are segregated professions, and occupations."^[20]

However, the situation is fluid, and some trends can be detected. For example, in 2007, women comprised 63% of students enrolled in United States professional pharmaceutical programs and 51.3% of PhD candidates in that same field.^[21] Similarly, women comprised 47.3% of those entering United States Law Schools in 2007 and are projected to comprise as much as 49.4% of law students by the end of the decade.^[22] Such shifts seem to indicate a gradual trend toward greater gender equality in the professions.

Racial inequality

Equally qualified blacks get paid less than equivalent whites. "the percentage difference in earnings between Blacks and Whites was smallest (5%) in the lowest-paid occupations and greatest in the highest-paid occupations...black dentists and physicians earned 80 cents for every dollar earned by their White colleagues. Black lawyers earned 79 cents for every dollar earned by White lawyers...black men have made inroads into the most highly paid occupations, but once they get there, they find they still don't earn as much as equally qualified White men."^[23]

Characteristics of a profession

The list of characteristics that follows is extensive, but does not claim to include every characteristic that has ever been attributed to professions, nor do all of these features apply to every profession:

1. Skill based on theoretical knowledge: Professionals are assumed to have extensive theoretical knowledge (e.g. medicine, law, scripture or engineering) and to possess skills based on that knowledge that they are able to apply in practice.
2. Professional association: Professions usually have professional bodies organized by their members, which are intended to enhance the status of their members and have carefully controlled entrance requirements.
3. Extensive period of education: The most prestigious professions usually require at least three years^{[dated info]} at university. Undertaking doctoral research can add a further 4-5 years to this period of education.
4. Testing of competence: Before being admitted to membership of a professional body, there is a requirement to pass prescribed examinations that are based on mainly theoretical knowledge.
5. Institutional training: In addition to examinations, there is usually a requirement for a long period of institutionalized training where aspiring professionals acquire specified practical experience in some sort of trainee role before being recognized as a full member of a professional body. Continuous upgrading of skills through professional development is also mandatory these days.
6. Licensed practitioners: Professions seek to establish a register or membership so that only those individuals so licensed are recognized as bona fide.
7. Work autonomy: Professionals tend to retain control over their work, even when they are employed outside the profession in commercial or public organizations. They have also gained control over their own theoretical knowledge.
8. Code of professional conduct or ethics: Professional bodies usually have codes of conduct or ethics for their members and disciplinary procedures for those who infringe the rules.
9. Self-regulation: Professional bodies tend to insist that they should be self-regulating and independent from government. Professions tend to be policed and regulated by senior, respected practitioners and the most highly qualified members of the profession.
10. Public service and altruism: The earning of fees for services rendered can be defended because they are provided in the public interest, e.g. the work of doctors contributes to public health.
11. Exclusion, monopoly and legal recognition: Professions tend to exclude those who have not met their requirements and joined the appropriate professional body. This is often termed professional closure, and seeks to bar entry for the unqualified and to sanction or expel incompetent members.
12. Control of remuneration and advertising: Where levels of remuneration are determined by government, professional bodies are active in negotiating (usually advantageous) remuneration packages for their members. Some professions set standard scale fees, but government advocacy of competition means that these are no longer generally enforced.^{[citation needed]}
13. High status and rewards: The most successful professions achieve high status, public prestige and rewards for their members.^{[citation needed]} Some of the factors included in this list contribute to such success.
14. Individual clients: Many professions have individual fee-paying clients.^{[dubious – discuss]} For example, in accountancy, "the profession" usually refers to accountants who have individual and corporate clients, rather than accountants who are employees of organizations.
15. Middle-class occupations: Traditionally, many professions have been viewed as 'respectable' occupations for middle and upper classes.^[24]
16. Male-dominated: The highest status professions have tended to be male dominated although females are closing this gender gap^{[dated info]} Women are now being admitted to the priesthood while its status has declined relative to other professions.^{[citation needed]} Similar arguments apply to race and class: ethnic groups and working-class people are no less disadvantaged in most professions than they are in society generally.^{[25][dated info]}
17. Offer reassurance: Professionals are able to offer reassurance to their clients that although there appear to be problems, everything is normal or being dealt with properly, and this reassurance may be offered rather than solutions to particular problems. For example, sick people may be reassured that they will probably get better in a few days.
18. Ritual: Church ritual and the Court procedure are obviously ritualistic.^{[who?][citation needed]}
19. Legitimacy: Professions have clear legal authority over some activities (e.g. certifying the insane) but are also seen as adding legitimacy to a wide range of related activities.^{[citation needed]}
20. Inaccessible body of knowledge: In some professions, the body of knowledge is relatively inaccessible to the uninitiated. Medicine and law are typically not school subjects and have separate faculties and even separate libraries at universities.^{[dated info]}
21. Indeterminacy of knowledge: Professional knowledge contains elements that escape being mastered and communicated in the form of rules and can only be acquired through experience.^{[citation needed]}
22. Mobility: The skill knowledge and authority of professionals belongs to the professionals as individuals, not the organizations for which they work. Professionals are therefore relatively mobile in employment opportunities as they can move to other employers and take their talents with them. Standardization of professional training and procedures enhances this mobility.^[26].

See also

• Professional
• First professional degree
• Professional body
• Professional class
• Professional development
• Professional responsibility
• Professional ethics
• Professionalization
• Semiprofession

References

1. ^ New Statesman, 21 April 1917, article by the Webbs quoted with approval at paragraph 123 of a report by the UK Competition Commission, dated 8 November 1977, entitled Architects Services (in Chapter 7).
2. ^ ^{a b} Perks, R.W.(1993): Accounting and Society. Chapman & Hall (London); ISBN 0412473305. p.2.
3. ^ Perks, p.3.
4. ^ Buckley, J.W. & Buckley, M.H. (1974): The Accounting Profession. Melville, Los Angeles. Quoted by Perks, p.4.
5. ^ Zola, I.K. (1977): Healthism and disabling medicalization. Marion Boyars Publishers, New York. Quoted by Perks, p.4.
6. ^ Ideas and Beliefs in Architecture and Industrial design: How attitudes, orientations and underlying assumptions shape the built environment. Oslo School of Architecture and Design. ISBN 8254701741.
7. ^ Lorne M. Fienberg, Examples of Professions
8. ^ Alan Bullock & Stephen Trombley, The New Fontana Dictionary of Modern Thought, London: Harper-Collins, 1999, p.689.
9. ^ Bayles, Michael D. Professional Ethics. Belmont, California: Wadsworth, 1981.
10. ^ http://www.wma.net/e/policy/a21.htm The World Medical Association Declaration of Madrid on Professional Autonomy and Self-Regulation, 1987.
11. ^ http://www.ingentaconnect.com/content/klu/meta/2000/00000021/00000005/00274496 Hoogland J. & Jochemsen H., Professional Autonomy and the Normative Structure of Medical Practice, Theoretical Medicine, 21.5, September 2000, pp.457-475.
12. ^ http://www.usca.edu/essays/vol62003/tinsley.pdf Ron Tinsley & James C Hardy, Faculty Pressures and Professional Self-Esteem: Life in Texas Teacher Education.
13. ^ http://www.rcpath.org/index.asp?PageID=28 Royal College of Pathologists, The role of the College and benefits of membership, 16 Dec 2005.
14. ^ http://www.ingentaconnect.com/content/rsm/hsmr/2004/00000017/00000002/art00004 P. C. S. Lian & A. W. Laing, The role of professional expertise in the purchasing of health services, Health Services Management Research, 17.2, 1 May 2004, pp.110-120.
15. ^ Terence Johnson, Professions and Power, London: Heinemann, 1972.
16. ^ Gerald Larkin, Occupational Monopoly and Modern Medicine, London: Tavistock, 1983.
17. ^ Peter E. S. Freund, & Meredith B. McGuire, Health Illness and the Social Body A Critical Sociology, New Jersey, USA: Prentice Hall, 1995, p.211.
18. ^ Bridge the pay gap, it is outdated discrimination, The Independent, 23 February 2007
19. ^ Malcolm Dean, "Ending inequality is a work in progress", The Guardian, November 16, 2005
20. ^ Bill Saunders, Pay differentials, The Guardian, October 4, 2004
21. ^ AACP, Academic Pharmacy's Vital Statistics, April 2008
22. ^ First Year and Total J.D. Enrollment by Gender 1947-2007
23. ^ Anon, Despite Rising to top Professions, Black Men still don't earn top Pay, Jet, Sept 3, 2001
24. ^ Perks, p.6-11.
25. ^ Perks, p.11.
26. ^ Perks, pgs. 12-14.

• P.J. Corfield, Power and the Professions in Britain, 1700-1850, Routledge, London, 1995.
• Yves Dezalay and David Sugarman, Professional Competition and Professional Power, Routledge, 1995, ISBN 0203977211.
• Eliot Freidson, Professional Powers: A Study of the Institutionalization of Formal Knowledge, Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1986, ISBN 0-226-26225-1.
• Joseph M. Jacob, Doctors and Rules: A Sociology of Professional Values, Transaction Publishers, New Brunswick and London, 1999.
• Jonathan Montgomery, Medicine, Accountability, and Professionalism, 1989.

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